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 -                DSDO'SDOCK'SDOCTCK'SDOCTOACK'SDOCTORRACK'SDOCTOR KRACK'S           -
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 -                KSK0TSK00HTSK00LGHTSK00L-UGHTSK00L-LOUGHTSK00L-LEHOUGHTSK00L-LECTHOUGHTSK00L-LECT THOUGHTSK00L-LECTED THOUGHTS        -
 -                                   -
 -             PART TWO              -
 -                                   -
 -   HISTORY OF EXPLOSIVES, PART II  -
 -                                   -
 -             DKKT 2.2              -
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 -         Distributed by...         -
 -     The Barbary Coast Pyrates     -
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 DKKT 2.1 DELT MAINLY WITH THE HISTORY OF BLACK POWDER. IT ALSO COVERED THE 
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVES.
 
 DKKT 2.2 WILL MAINLY DEAL WITH NITROGLYCERIN AND ITS MENY DIFFERENT "DOPES".
 
 THIS ARTICLE WILL ONLY TOUCH ON AMMONIUM NITRATE AS IT IS USED IT THE DOPES.
 
 IT WILL ALSO PROCEED TO EXPLAIN HOW TO STORE NITROGLYCERIN IN A FROZEN STATE
TO MAKE IT ALMOST IMPERVOUS TO SHOCK.
 
 NOW...ON WITH THE ARTICLE...WRITTEN BY DOCTOR KRACK ALONG WITH RESERCH BY HIM.
 
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-NITROGLYCERIN-
---------------
 
 NITROGLYCERIN, ANOTHER CHEMICAL EXPLOSIVE, WAS DISCOVERED BY AN ITALIAN 
CHEMIST, ASCANIO SOBRERO, IN 1846. (NO, HE DIDN'T BLOW UP AND SOME ONE HAPPENED
TO STUMBLE ONTO HIS LAB NOTES!) THOUGH HE FIRST CALLED IT PRYROGLYCERIN, IT 
SOON CAME TO BE KNOWN GENERALLY AS NITROGLYCERIN, OR BLASTING OIL. BECAUSE OF
THE RISKS INHERENT IN ITS MANUFACTURE AND THE LACK OF DEPENDABLE MEANS FOR ITS
DETONATION, NITROGLYCERIN WAS LARGELY A LABORATORY CURIOSITY UNTILL IMMANUEL
NOBEL AND HIS SON ALFRED MADE EXTENSIVE STUDIES OF ITS COMMERCIAL POTENTIAL IN
THE YEARS OF 1859-61. IN 1862 THEY BUILT A CRUDE PLANT AT HELENEBORG, SWEEDEN;
ALFRED, A CHEMIST, WAS BASICALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DESIGN OF THIS FACTORY
THAT WAS EFFICIENT AND RELATIVELY SAFE CONSIDERING THE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE OF
THE TIMES. NEVERTHELESS, IT EXPLODED IN 1864 AND KILLED, AMONG OTHERS, ALFRED'S
YOUNGEST BROTHER EMIL OSKAR. THOUGH DEEPLY AFFECTED BY THE ACCIDEN, ALFRED
CONTINUED WORK, AT FIRST ON A BARGE THAT HE MOORED IN THE MIDDLE OF A LAKE. IN
1865 HE ERECTED A PLANT AT KRUMMEL, GERMANY, AND ANOTHER IN SWEDEN AT VINTER-
VIKEN NEAR STOCKHOLM. A THIRD PLANT WAS BUILT A YEAR LATER IN NORWAY. NOBEL WAS
GRANTED A PATENT FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND USE OF NITROGLYCERIN IN THE UNITED
STATES, IN 1866, AND SINCE IMPORTATION ON A LARGE SCALE WAS IMPRACTICAL, HE 
VISITED THE UNITED STATES IN AN EFFORT TO INTEREST LOCAL CAPITAL. THE VICTIM OF
A NUMBER OF UNSCRUPULOUS BISINESSMEN, HE FINALLLY SOLD HIS AMERICAN HOLDINGS IN
1885 FOR ONLY $20,000.
 
 EVEN TODAY MOST EXPERTS REGARD NOBEL'S INVENTION OF THE BLASTING CAP, A DEVICE
FOR DETONATING EXPLOSIVES, IN 1865, AS THE GREATEST ADVANCE IN THE SCIENCE OF 
EXPLOSIVES, IN SINCE THE DISCOVERY OF BLACK POWDER. COMBINED WITH BICKFORD'S 
SAFETY FUSE, THE BLASTING CAP PROVIDED A DEPENDABLE MEANS FOR DETONATING 
NITROGLYCERIN AND THE MANY OTHER HIGH EXPLOSIVES THAT FOLLOWED IT. AFTER A
NUMBER OF ATTEMPS THAT WERE ONLY PARTIALLY SUCCESSFUL, NOBEL SETTLED ON A 
CHARGE OF MERCURY FULMINATE, WHICH HAD BEEN KNOWN FOR MANY YEARS, IN A COPPER
CAPSELE. WITH ONE OR TWO MINOR CHANGES, THIS BLASTING CAP REMAINED IN GENERAL
USE UNTIL THE 1920'S.
 
-DYNAMITE-
----------
 
 THE SECOND MOST IMPORTANT OF NOBEL'S INVENTIONS WAS DYNAMITE, IN 1867. HE 
COINED THE NAME FROM THE GREEK WORD 'DYNAMIS', "POWER". THE BASIS FOR THE 
INVENTION WAS HIS DISCOVERY THAT KIESELGUHR, A POROUS SILICEOUS EARTH, WOULD
ABSORB LARGE QUANTITIES OF NITROGLYCERIN, GIVING A PRODUCT THAT WAS MUCH SAFER 
TO HANDLE AND EASIER TO USE THAN NITROGLYCERIN ALONE.
 
 DYNAMITE NO. 1, AS NOBEL CALLED IT, WAS 75% NITROGLYCERIN AND 25% GUHR. 
SHORTLY AFTER ITS INVENTION, NOBEL REALIZED THAT GUHR, AN INERT SUBSTANCE, NOT
ONLY CONTRIBUTED NOTHING TO THE POWER OF THE EXPLOSIVE BUT ACTUALLY DETRACTED
FROM IT BECAUSE IT ABSORBED HEAT THAT OTHERWISE WOULD HAVE IMPROVED THE 
BLASTING ACTION. HE TURNED, THEREFORE, TO ACTIVE INGREDIENTS SUCH AS WOOD PULP
FOR AN ABSORBENT, AND SODIUM NITRATE FOR AN OXIDIZING AGENT. BY VARING THE 
RATIO OF NITROGLYCERIN TO THESE "DOPES," AS THE CAME TO BE CALLED, NOBEL NOT 
ONLY IMPROVED THE EFFICIENCY OF DYNAMITE BUT ALSO WAS ABLE TO PREPARE IT IN 
VARYING STRENGTHS, TERMED STRAIGHT DYNAMITES. THUS 40% STRAIGHT DYNAMITE
CONTAINED 40% NITROGLYCERIN AND 60% DOPE. DYNAMITE OF THIS TYPE ARE STILL IN
LIMITED USE.
 
 NOBEL PATENTED THE USE OF ACTIVE INGREDIENTS IN DYNAMITE IN 1869. SEVERAL 
OTHERS OBTAINED SIMILAR PATENTS AT ABOUT THE SAME TIME, HOWEVER, AND THE RESULT
WAS THAT NO ONE COULD ESTABLISH A CLEAR-CUT CLAIM TO THE INVENTION.
 
 NOBEL'S NEXT OUTSTANDING CONTRIBUTION WAS HIS INVENTION OF GELATINOUS DYNA-
MITES IN 1875. THERE IS A LEGEND THAT HE HURT HIS FINGER AND USED COLLODION, A
SOLUTION OF RELATIVELY LOW NITROGEN CONTENT NITROCELLULOSE IN A MIXTURE OF 
ETHER AND ALCOHOL, TO COVER THE WOUND. LATER,  UNABLE TO SLEEP BECAUSE OF THE 
PAIN, NOBEL WENT TO THE LABORATORY TO FIND OUT WHAT EFFECT COLLODION WOULD HAVE
ON NITROGLYCERIN. TO HIS GREAT SATISFACTION, HE FOUND THAT AFTER EVAPORATION OF
THE SOLVENTS, THERE REMAINED A TOUGH, PLASTIC MATERIAL. HE DISCOVERED THAT HE
DUPLICATE THIS BY THE DIRECT ADDITION OF 7 TO 8% OF COLLODION-TYPE NITROCOTTON
TO NITROGLYCERIN AND THAT LESSER QUANTITIES OF NITROCOTTON DECREASED THE 
VISCOSITY AND ENABLED HIM TO ADD OTHER ACTIVE INGREDIENTS. HE CALLED THE 
ORIGINAL MATERIAL 'BLASTING GELATIN' AND THE DOPE MIXTURES 'GELATIN DYNAMITES'.
THE PRINCIPAL ADVANTAGES OF THESE PRODUCTS WERE THEIR HIGH WATER RESISTANCE AND
GREATER BLASTING ACTION POWER THAN THE COMPARABE DYNAMITES. THIS ADDED POWER
RESULTED FROM A COMBINATION OF HIGHER DENSITY AND A DEGREE OF PLASTICITY THAT 
ALLOWED COMPLETE FILLING OF THE BOREHOLE (THE HOLE THAT WAS BORED IN THE COAL
SEAM OR ELSE WHERE FOR IMPLANTATION OF
THE EXPLOSIVE.)
 
 THE FIRST LARGE-SCALE MANUFACTURE OF NITROGLYCERIN IN THE UNITED STATES IS
ATTRIBUTED TO GEORGE MOWBRAY, A CHEMIST OF CONSIDERABLE ABILITY WHO HAD 
FOLLOWED THE WORK OF SOBRERO AND OTHERS IN EUROPE WITH GREAT INTEREST. MOWBRAY
PUBLISHED AND ADVERTISEMENT OFFERING TO SUPPLY NITROGLYCERIN. THIS LED TO AN 
INVITATION TO MANUFACTURE IT FOR COMPLETION OF THE HOOSAC TUNNEL AT NORTH 
ADAMS, MASSACHUSETTS. MOWBRAY'S PLANT WAS BUILT NEAR NORTH ADAMS IN THE LATTER 
PART OF 1867. MOST OF ITS PRODUCT WENT TO THE TUNNEL, BUT A SUBSTANTIAL AMOUNT
WAS SHIPPED, FROZEN, THROUGHOUT THE EASTERN UNITED STATES AND CANADA. PURE 
NITROGLYCERIN, RELATIVELY INSENSITIVE IN FROZEN FORM, FREEZES AT ABOUT 52'F AND
IS, THEREFORE, EASYTO KEEP FROZEN BY PACKING IT IN ICE. BEFORE CLOSING HIS 
PLANT DOWN BECAUSE OF PATENT DIFFICULTIES, MOWBRAY MADE ABOUT 1,000,000 POUNDS 
OF NITROGLYCERIN WITHOUT ACCIDENTS IN EITHER MANUFACTURE OR SHIPMENT.
 
 ONE OF THE EARLIEST MAJOR USE OF NITROGLYCERIN IN THE UNITED STATES WAS IN
BLASTIN OIL WELLS TO INCREASE THE FLOW OF OIL. E.A.L. ROBERTS IN THAT COUNTRY 
OBTAINED A PATENT COVERING THIS PROCEDURE AND LATER ACQUIRED THE RIGHT TO MANU-
FACTURE AND USE NITROGLYCERIN UNDER THE NOBEL PATENTS. THEORETICALLY, THIS GAVE
HIM A MONOPOLY ON SHOOTING OIL WELLS, AND HIS COMPANY DOMINATED THE FIELD, BUT 
MANY OF HIS COMPETITORS IGNORED HIS PATENT RIGHTS.
 
 AFTER 1883 THE USE OF NITROGLYCERIN WAS, WITH A FEW UNIMPORANT EXCEPTIONS, 
RESTRICTED TO OIL-WELL SHOOTING. IN RECENT YEARS MORE EFFICENT MEANSHAVE BEEN 
DEVELOPED FOR INCREASING OIL FLOW. NITROGLYCERIN IS STILL USED OCCASIONALLY
BECAUSE IT IS MORE ECONOMICAL IN SMALL WELLS.
 
 THREE TUNNELS STAND OUT AS BENCHMARKS IN THE HISTORY OF THE USE OF EXPLOSIVES:
FIRST IS THE MONT CENIS, A SEVEN-MILE RAILWAY TUNNEL DRIVEN THROUGH THE ALPS 
BETWEEN FRANCE AND ITALY IN 1857-71, MUCH THE LARGEST CONSTRUCTION JOB WITH 
BLACK POWDER UP TO THAT TIME; SECOND WAS THE FOUR-MILE HOOSAC, ALSO A RAILWAY 
PROJECT, DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF WHICH (1855-66) NITROGLYCERIN FIRST 
REPLACED BLACK POWDER IN LARGE-SCALE CONSTRUCTION; THIRD WAS THE SUTRO MINE 
DEVELOPMENT TUNNEL IN NEVADA (1864-74) WHERE THE SWITCH FROM NITROGLYCERIN TO 
DYNAMITE FOR THIS TYPE OF WORK STARTED.
 
-AMMONIUM NITRATE-
------------------
 
 AFTER THE STRAIGHT DYNAMITES AND GELATINS, THE NEXT IMPORTANT ADVANCE IN
DYNAMITE WAS THE SUBSTITUTION OF AMMONIUM NITRATE FOR PART OF THE NITROGLYCERIN
TO GIVE A SAFER AND LESS EXPENSIVE PRODUCT. THE USE OF AMMONIUM NITRATE IN 
EXPLOSIVES HAD BEEN PATENTED BY OTHERS IN SWEDEN IN 1867, BUT IT WAS NOBEL WHO
MADE THE NEW "EXTRA DYNAMITES" SUCCESSFUL BY DEVISING GELATINS THAT CONTAINED
FROM 20 TO 60% AMMONIUM NITRATE.
 
 DURING THE PERIOD 1867-84, MANY PEOPLE WORKED TO DEVELOP THE NONGELATINOUS 
AMMONIUM NITRATE MIXTURES, BUT NOTHING OF VALUE RESULTED, LARGELY BECAUSE 
AMMONIUM NITRATE IS TOO HYGROSCOPIC; THAT IS, IT PICKS UP MOISTURE TOO READILY.
IN 1885 R.S. PENNIMAN, AN AMERICAN, FOUND A SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM BY COATING 
THE AMMONIUM NITRATE WITH A SMALL PERCENTAGE OF PARAFFIN, OR SOME SIMILAR
SUBSTANCE, PRIOR TO USE. WITH THIS DEVELOPMENT, A SERIES OF AMMONIA DYNAMITES
SOON BECOME POPULAR. COATING WAS DISCONTINUED WHEN OTHER, SAFER MEANS WERE 
DEVELOPED TO HANDLE THE MOISTURE PROBLEM.
 
 ALL MAJOR UNDERGROUND-COAL-MINING COUNTRIES HAVE SIMILAR EXPLOSIVES AND 
REGULATIONS. IN THE UNITED STATES EXPLOSIVES THAT HAVE BEEN APPROVED BY THE 
U.S. BUREAU OF MINES FOR USE IN UNDERGROUND COAL MINES ARE CALLED PERMISSIBLES.
BESIDES PASSING THE BUREAU'S SAFETY TESTS, THESE EXPLOSIVES MUST BE USED IN A
MANNER SPECIFIED BY THE BUREAU. IN ENGLAND THE EXPLOSIVES ARE KNOWN AS
PERMITTED; IN FRANCE, 'EXPLOSIFS ANTIGRISOUTEUX'; IN BELGIUM, 'EXPLOSIFS 
S. G. P. (SECURITE, GRISOU, POUSSIERE)', AND IN GERMANY, 'SCHLAGWATTERSICHERE 
SPRENGSTOFFE'. ALMOST WITHOUT EXCEPTION, THE MAJOR INGREDIENT IN THESE 
EXPLOSIVES IS AMMONIUM NITRATE, CHOSEN BECAUSE OF ITS LOW EXPLOSION TEMPERA-
TURE, AND NEARLY ALL OF THEM CONTAIN A COOLING AGENT SUCH AS SODIUM CHLORIDE 
(COMMON SALT) OR AMMONIUM CHLORIDE TO PREVENT THE HEAT OF THEIR EXPLOSION IN A
MINE FROM IGNITING UNDERGROUND GASES SUCH AS METHANE, OR A COMBINATION OF THEM 
AND COAL DUST, AND CAUSING A FIRE OR DISASTROUS SECONDARY EXPLOSION. THE 
SENSITIZER IS USUALLY A SMALL AMOUNT OF NITROGLYCERIN BUT IN SOME CASES IT IS 
TNT, TRINITROTOLUENE (DISCUSSED LATER); FOR EXAMPLE, IT IS SAID THAT TYPICAL 
RUSSIAN PERMISSIBLE WOULD BE 68% AMMONIUM NITRATE, 10 TNT, 20 SODIUM CHLORIDE,
2 POWDERED BARK.
 
 AS SYNTHETIC AMMONIA BECAME LESS EXPENSIVE, BECAUSE OF IMPROVEMENTS IN 
MANUFACTURE AND A RAW MATERIAL CHANGE FROM COAL TO NATURAL GAS, THE EXPLOSIVES 
INDUSTRY CONCENTRATED ITS EFFORTS ON SUBSTITUTING AMMONIUM NITRATE FOR NITRO-
CLYCERIN. TWO IMPORTANT PRODUCTS WERE (1) LOWDENSITY AMMONIA DYNAMITES AND (2)
SEMIGELATINS. PRIOR TO THEIR DEVELOPMENT, THE DENSITY OF MOST DYNAMITES WAS 
ABOUT THE SAME AND WAS QUITE HIGH. STRENGTH WAS CHANGED IN THE DIFFERENT GRADES
BY VARYING THE AMOUNT OF EXPLOSIVES USED. THE NEW CONCEPT WAS TO EMPLOY THE 
STRONGEST FORMULA POSSIBLE, WITH A MINIMUM OF NITROGLYCERIN AND A MAXIMUM OF 
AMMONIUM NITRATE, AND TO DILUTE IT SYSTEMATICALLY WITH A SUITABLE LOW-DENSITY
INGREDIENTS SUCH AS BAGASSE (THE PULP REMAINING AFTER THE EXTRACTION OF SUGAR
FROM THE CANE) SO THAT ONE STICK OF THE NEW PRODUCT WOULD GIVE THE SAME BLAST-
ING ACTION AS ONE OF THE OLD. THIS PROVIDED A SUBSTANTIAL SAVING TO THE USER 
BECAUSE THE COST PER STICK OF THE NEW PRODUCT WAS MUCH LOWER.
 
 THE ONLY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE LOW-DENSITY AMMONIA DYNAMITES AND THE SEMI-
GELATINS IS THAT THE LATTER ARE PARTIALLY GELATINIZED THROUGH THE USE OF NITRO-
CELLULOSE AND A HIGHER NITROGLYCERIN CONTENT. THIS GELATINIZATION PROVIDES GOOD
WATER RESISTANCE AND A DEGREE OF PLASTICITY THAT IS DESIRABE IN LOADING HOLES
PRIOR TO BLASING.
 
 MEANS ARE AVAILABLE TO OBTAIN A MODERATE AMOUNT OF WATER RESISTANCE IN THE 
AMMONIA DYNAMITES WITH OUT RESORTING TO GELATINIZATION OF THE NITROGLYCERIN.
THE MOST COMMON INVOLVE THE USE OF WATER-REPELLENTS SUCH AS CALCIUM STEARATE, 
AND INGREDIENTS THAT FORM A WATER GEL ON THE SURFACE OF THE DYNAMITE THAT SLOWS
DOWN THE FURTHER PENETRATION OF WATER. EXAMPLES OF THE LATTER ARE PREGELA-
TINIZED STARCH PRODUCTS AND RYE FLOUR.
 
-LOW-FREEZING DYNAMITE-
-----------------------
 
 ATTEMPTS TO REDUCE THE FREEZING POINT OF NITROGLYCERIN BEGAN SHORTLY AFTER THE
NOBELS INTRODUCED IT COMMERCIALLY. FROZEN DYNAMITE IS VERY INSENSITIVE, 
SOMETIMES SO MUCH THAT IT WILL NOT GIVE DEPENDABLE PERFORMANCE, AND IT IS
DIFFICULT TO USE, SINCE IT CANNOT BE PUNCHED FOR THE INSERTIION OF A BLASTING
CAP OR SLIT AND TAMPED INTO A BOREHOLE. CONSEQUENTLY, ALMOST ALL OF IT HAD TO 
BE THAWED FOR USE AND CARELESS THAWING METHODS CAUSED MANY ACCIDENTS. NOT 
UNTIL 1907 WAS REASONABLY SUCCESSFUL PROCEDURE FOR PRODUCING LOW-FREEZING 
DYNAMITE DEVELOPED. THIS INVOLVED ADDING 20 TO 25% OF THE LIQUID ISOMERS (MOLE-
CULES WITH IDENTICAL FORMULAS BUT DIFFERENT STRUCTURE) OF TNT TO THE NITROGLY-
CERIN. THIS WAS REPLACED FOR A SHORT TIME BY A NITRATED SOLUTION OF SUGAR IN 
GLYCERIN. IN 1911 A PRACTICAL WAY TO MANUFACTURE DIGLYCERIN (A GLYCERIN 
POLYMER) WAS DISCOVERED. ITS NITRATION PRODUCT, TETRANITRODIGLYCERIN, WHEN 
MIXED WITH NITROGLYCERIN, REDUCED ITS GREEZING POINT MATERIALLY.
 
 THE ULTIMATE SOLUTION TO THE FREEZING PROBLEM WAS FOUND IN 1925, WHEN SYN-
THETIC ETHYLENE GLYCOL BECAME AVAILABLE. THE EXPLOSIVE PROPERITIES OF ETHYLENE
GLYCOL DINITRATE ARE PRACTICALLY IDENTICAL WITH THOES OF NITROGLYCERIN AND ITS
LOW-FREEZING QUALITITES ARE EXTREMELY GOOD. DYNAMITE CONTAINGING A MIXTURE OF
IT AND NITROGLYCERIN WAS STORED IN OPEN AT POINT BARROW, ALASKA, FOR FOUR YEARS
WITHOUT FREEZING.
 
 
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 -         THAT'S ALL FOLKS          -
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